ESSENTIAL SCRIPT ELEMENTS

ESSENTIAL SCRIPT ELEMENTS
Whereas film has no grammar per say, there are certain ‘rules’ of usage in cinematic language and syntax, or systematic arrangement, orders these rules and the relationships between them. This syntax has been determined as a result of the usage of film elements over the years and is not necessarily a determinant of them. Film syntax evolved much like a language. It was an organic development, descriptive rather than prescriptive and constantly changing and evolving. This evolution is still taking place and new thresholds are being pushed by filmmakers everyday. As a basic guide, however, it is important to know these ‘rules’ even if only to break them.
There are three elements of film ‘language’ that should be studied by a script writer and incorporated into a script:
1. Visual Elements
The visual elements of film, or what the audience ‘sees’ on screen is one of the most integral aspects of writing a script. It’s important to understand, firstly, how a film is composed structurally from its smallest component. In a script, this is usually a shot.
• The Shot
A shot is a single ‘take’ on an image. It starts and finishes at a ‘cut-point’, which is an editing break in the image. A shot is not defined by any particular image, action or event that takes place on screen. It is more a technical concept. You can have a single shot of a man picking up a paper or two or three of the same thing. It’s basically what occurs between two breaks in editing. In a script, a shot is the smallest visual unit of structure.
Action, Action, Action. You can’t say it often enough!
There is a reason why film is called ‘moving images’. It’s what differentiates it from photographs or painting. Technically, a shot may be a structural unit of film language, but what it contains is more important – action. Shots are made of action. Something needs to be ‘happening’ in a shot for the audience to see – a man walking, a dog barking, a car reversing, a machine working, a river flowing – anything at all that has action, images moving. These actions form events that drive the shot forward to completion.
It’s not enough however, just to have random action on screen. The images, the action, the events have to be meaningful. A documentary, like any film, has limited time in which to convey a multitude of things and to tell a story. Therefore, all the components within the film must be specific and meaningful so as not to waste precious screen time. Each shot has an underlying ‘meaning’ depending on the nature and arrangement of objects and actions within it. This visual way of communication or language has evolved through the years and has three basic elements:

1. Icon is showing an object or emotion through its likeness – it is what it is and what the audience sees. The signifier represents the signified through similarity to it. For example, a face on screen showing fear is a face showing fear. There are no other meanings, no ‘reading between the lines’. This is the most straightforward approach to a shot.
   
2. Index measures a quality not because it is identical to it (like an icon), but because it has a direct and inherent relationship to it. For example, to show heat, or the idea of heat, as a visual, the shot could show a thermometer or heat waves over an empty road or perhaps even a man sweating profusely. This works very well because the scriptwriter can translate an intangible object, like heat, into a tangible and visual reality.
   
3. Symbol or Metaphor is an arbitrary sign in which the signifier has neither a direct nor an indexical relationship with the signified, but rather represents it through convention. For example, a rose could be shown to signify love or romance, falling calendar pages could denote time. This technique of using symbols to express ideas and objects has become very popular for its artistic appeal but can and should be used with caution and with a view to the audience’s ability to ‘read between the lines’.
   

• The Sequence
A sequence is a collection of shots put together that tell a story continuously. A sequence is an autonomous piece of the larger story of the film. An entire film is made up of a series of sequences, which can be of varying durations, and are connected to each other in some way. Each sequence has a visual and audio aspect to it.
If a shot is made up of action, a sequence is made up of events. Events mean change in action. These events are built up by the action in the shots to make some sort of sense to the audience and pass along information to them.
Sequences usually fall into one of two categories:
1. A Continuity Sequence is a unit of continuing action which ends in a break in time. This type of sequence is a collection of shots that show an event or events that happened in the same block of time. The end of the sequence occurs when that event is complete and the film moves on to another point in time. The shots within this kind of sequence must be functional, must be logical and must give the illusion of continuity. For example, a continuity sequence could be of a man walking from his house to his office. The sequence starts from when he is outside his front door and the first shot could be of him locking it. After that there could be shots of him walking along the street in his neighbourhood, passing people on the street, going past a children’s park, walking on a pedestrian path with other office goers and, finally, walking into the entrance of his office building. The shots in this sequence would all appear to be in chronological order and continuous.

2. A Compilation Sequence is a unit of information or thought and is sometimes called a ‘newsreel sequence’. There may be many breaks in time during this kind of sequence because the scope is broad. The shots within it could be of events that occurred independently, at different points in time, at different locations and contain different people doing different things. The common aspect that ties all these shots together is conceptual, which is the subject of the sequence. It usually ends when the film’s discussion of the subject ends. For example, the sequence could be about worldwide protests against war and could contain different shots of people from all parts of the globe, some holding banners, some marching hand-in-hand, some giving speeches etc. the sequence would end, when the subject of these protests ended in the film.
A scriptwriter has many choices to make when deciding about the content, treatment and nature of sequences. They can have their own distinct ‘personalities’. A sequence can have a completely autonomous audio-visual and conceptual quality to it. A sequence can be a mere chronological aspect within the film, like a link in a chain, without anything distinct about it. A sequence can be descriptive, where it doesn’t take a stand but just establishes details. Or it can be a strong part of the narrative within the story and contain events that drive the story forward. A sequence can occur in linear time, which is the real time in which events occur, or in non-linear time, when it can cut back and forth between different moments in time.
Documentary sequences, for the most part, are observational. This means that they observe events as they happen. If the film didn’t record the event, it would still take place. For example, a village farmer herding his cattle to graze in the fields is an event that would occur everyday, whether or not there was a sequence that contained it. However, sequences can also be organized. These days, many filmmakers choose to construct or initiate events that can be then included in a sequence. For example, if the film dealt with the issue of the fur trade and how animal rights activists are combating this evil, the filmmaker could organize a rally with a group of activists and use that sequence in the film. The rally would be a real event and the filmmaker’s involvement in organizing it doesn’t affect its authenticity.

• The Montage
  A montage is a sequence of sorts. It’s a process of combining a number of small shots and weaving them together to communicate a large amount of information in a short time. The shots are usually not strictly continuous in nature nor need they be compiled according to subject. A montage can create a whole new meaning out of the two original meanings of adjacent shots just by coupling them together in a flowing, musical way. This visual technique is often used extensively by filmmakers to cover either broad areas of subject matter or to portray emotion. For example, a documentary may use a montage to portray the past life of an individual character in the film, covering large chunks of childhood, adolescence, young adulthood and middle age, all in a matter of seconds.
  
• Talking heads
  One of the most common features of a documentary is talking heads. This includes either interviews of people on camera or people talking directly to the audience on camera or both. Since documentary is non-fiction, the idea of people talking to the camera, or a filmmaker seated behind the camera is an acceptable story-telling/information giving technique. Often these talking heads are experts, people involved in the stories or people who are directly or indirectly related to the subject matter in some form. For example, a film on forest conservation in the Himalayas may have interviews with officials from the government forest dept, with villagers who live in the forests, with conservation experts, people involved with logging and maybe even people protesting against logging.
  
• Colours, textures and Lines
  Elements of line, texture and colour all carry their own weights in a film, counteracting, reinforcing, counter pointing and balancing each other within frames in a complex system. These are read by the senses of the audience on a sub-conscious level and are used extensively by filmmakers to add new dimensions in film.
  With the advent of multi-coloured films, a whole new visual world opened up to both the audience, who could now see images as they existed in real life, and for filmmakers, who could experiment that much further with the medium. Colour and its presence or absence from a film can make a significant difference to the film’s message and mood.
  Colour Symbolism is when colour is used deliberately as a symbol on film. Colour speaks and the language of colour, harnessed in a film, is a powerful one. The choice of hues for certain items or its use in out-of-the-ordinary contexts and even the type of lighting used portrays subliminal messages to the audience. A red t-shirt worn by the subject during a sequence may subliminally portray him as a passionate person to the audience. Background colours or the time of day (an orange sunset or an over-exposed, sunny afternoon) have their own symbolism. A dark silhouette of a person walking in an alley may imply he is up to no good.

If a sequence is being organized by the filmmaker, the scriptwriter can have more of a free hand with colour. Demonstrators wearing the colours of a funeral may be protesting the death of democracy; Bright, kitsch clothing may, on the other hand, represent a generation breaking away from tradition. Streets filled with different colours may present a vibrant society, a cultural hub, festivity, growth; the same streets in dull grey or faded colours may present poverty, disease and degeneration.
It is important, however, not to get carried away with colour. That is where Colour Pertinence comes in. There are millions of hues to choose from and vast possibilities when using colour to communicate with the audience. It is easy to get carried away and try and use colour excessively as a medium. Documentaries are about authenticity and the scriptwriter must always remember that subject comes before form. The elements the scriptwriter uses must be in keeping with real events and people. Also, colour can be a powerful element when it is used with discretion and subtlety. Too much colour may give irritate the audience’s senses or may confuse them. Too many colours may lead to the audience overlooking their individual significance or misunderstanding the message.
Textures within a film work on very much the same principles as colour. Texture is important, not only in terms of the inherent texture of the subject but also the texture of the image. Documentary filmmakers often use texture to their advantage by giving old footage a ‘grainy’ texture, thereby signifying that the footage is of real events that happened in the past. A ‘sepia’ texture is often used in recreations/flashbacks for the same purpose. Layering of different shots on top of each other in a half-dissolve has become a popular technique with documentary filmmakers as it creates an almost musical texture.
Lines and form within a frame in a documentary film are also important and can add another dimension. A man walking tall amidst the vertical columns of an old building will immediately be perceived by the audience as someone powerful. The same columns bathed in dark lighting so that only the layers are shown may imply that he has a dark or negative power. In the same way, a man lying in a field of short grass and looking at a flat, striking horizon may be perceived as submissive to the grandeur of nature.
In feature films, these elements are used extensively by filmmakers and they can be applied within real environments by documentary filmmakers as well. Even though, in documentaries, there is sometimes little control over the objects and locations to be shot on camera, the scriptwriter can still incorporate them into the story in many ways by suggesting interesting shots and sequences that are pertinent and relevant to the subject matter. However, this level of detail need not be attempted for every shot and every sequence within the script as documentaries naturally tend to involve less image control. 

RESEARCH, RESEARCH, RESEARCH: YOU CAN’T SAY IT ENOUGH!

RESEARCH, RESEARCH, RESEARCH: YOU CAN’T SAY IT ENOUGH!

Every film, especially a documentary, has a ‘value’. This could be social, political, historical, philosophical, artistic or of some other kind. The amount of research a scriptwriter puts in is directly related to the ‘value’ of the film.
In the rush to get started, many people often skim over the research process. Especially in films that involve subjects of a personal nature; for example: a person’s journey within his own family to explore social dynamics. A scriptwriter could be instructed to write a script on a live event that was shot some time ago, like a riot, or for a film on the thoughts and feelings of a celebrity already captured in detail on camera. He might ask himself, “How can I possibly add anything more to the subject information?” Even in films that seem straightforward and detailed information has already been given to the scriptwriter, there is always room for more research. There are simply no shortcuts that will provide the quality of a well-researched film.
Suppose a scriptwriter has the footage of a live riot, shot by the filmmaker, along with a detailed log of the events that took place before, during and afterwards, the filmmaker’s personal thoughts about his experience and on-camera interviews with people on both sides about their views. He may think he has enough information to write a fairly comprehensive script and he would be right. However, what if he did a little study on the political, historical and social reasons why that riot may have taken place for some extra context, or if he spoke to a few more people who were involved on that day and who may have seen something he didn’t know about. Perhaps he could visit the riot site, or meet an expert on riots and get his perspective on what happened and even collect the newspaper coverage of that riot and think about the role of media in that event. He could even go so far as to place himself in the middle of a riot (highly unadvisable) to get a first-hand perspective on the experience. In the end, he may or may not use any of the so-called ‘extra’ information he gathered, but his in-depth knowledge on the subject would be extremely valuable in creating an insightful and engaging script.
Curiosity
The best research is done when there is a genuine desire on the part of the scriptwriter to learn more about the subject of his documentary. This is easier said than done, especially when you get that dreaded call about writing a script on the inner components of a diesel generator, but inspiration and curiosity go a long way in helping a scriptwriter. After all, if you’re not excited about it, how on earth are you going to make hundreds, thousands or even millions of people excited? Therefore, the first step in the research process would be to develop a healthy interest and curiosity about the subject of the film. The scriptwriter must ask himself some important questions:

• What have I not yet been told about this subject?
  
• Is everything I have been told the truth? How much do I need to verify?
  
• What would I personally like to know about this subject?

• If I were a member of the audience, what would I want to learn about this subject?
  
• What can I find that is little known on this subject?
  
• If the shooting has not yet started, what information can I gather that
  would aid the filming process?
  
  Quantity Vs Quality
  One of the more important questions that scriptwriters have is, “How much research is enough?” The quality of research is far more important than the quantity. After all, if you were a writing a script for a film on the First World War, you could spend a lifetime studying the subject and never meet that script deadline. One of the more important skills of the scriptwriter is to segregate relevant information from the irrelevant. This can be done by having detailed and on-going communication with the filmmaker at all times. The focus of the film and the subject matter it is dealing with must be kept in mind at all times. Any information gathered or lead followed must first be put through a ‘relevancy test’. The scriptwriter must ask himself:
  

• Is this information or source of information directly related to the subject of my film?
  
• Is it necessary for the audience to know this information?
  
• Will this information add to the overall quality of the film?
  
• Even if it is relevant and will add value, is it more relevant than all the
  other information I have gathered so far?
  
• Will I be able to incorporate this information into the script even if it is
  relevant to the subject?
  The ‘Strategy’
  Almost every scriptwriter starts off with a research strategy. After all, it’s extremely inconvenient to be in the middle of writing a script when a new piece of information crops up. It’s important to think about and list down every approach and every source you will use to gather information needed for research. The all-important question that usually crops up is, “Where do I look?”
  Each scriptwriter has his own sources and approaches for gathering information and many use the same tried and tested ways throughout their careers. A few places to start are:
  

• Print Research :
There are millions of places to look in print: Newspapers, books, magazines, journals, digests, reports, archives, diaries...the list is endless. The scriptwriter must decide which one will be suitable for subject-related information gathering and then physically get hold of the required publication. The usual places to go for finding print material are libraries, bookstores, institutions and organizations with archives and, of course, the internet. Other places could be antique book stores, publishing houses and academic institutions. People also keep print material in their houses and that out-of-print, obscure thesis you were looking for could be lying in your neighbour’s house so it never hurts to ask around.

Unless your film is about something extremely specific, chances are you’ll have a stack of a hundred relevant publications lying in your house waiting to be read. Chances also are you’ll probably not have enough time to read all of them. The art of scouring through large amounts of print material quickly can only be picked up over time, however a novice scriptwriter should try and train his eye to skim over words and stop to read bits of text which occur to him as something he could put in his script or which sounds interesting and should be kept aside. It also helps to keep a look out for ‘keywords’ or words that strike a chord because of their meaning. These words can be used later on in the script, if you are going to write narration. In addition, you may be exploring the idea of including visuals of print material in your film as well, in which case you must select and isolate this material carefully for filming later.

• Field Research :
  Since film is a visual medium, it is integral that a scriptwriter get an accurate picture of the visual information in the film. He could go to the various locations in which the film will be shot, or to locations where events took place earlier or will take place in the future. The scriptwriter could attend related events or even put himself into places where the people in the film will be or would have been. He could even go to museums, art galleries or any kind of public viewing space where he could gather information. The ‘field’ exists only in relation to the subject of the film and therefore the options are endless and should be visited upon the scriptwriter’s discretion.
  Once the writer reaches a location, it is important to look out for things which might be relevant to the script. You could track events as they happened or look for clues that could reveal facts much like a detective. How to gather field material when on location is subjective to the film, but the scriptwriter must keep a look out for all things visual that can be incorporated as images within the script. The culture of the area should be learnt, the people met, the details noted. Once you gather this knowledge, you must keep it aside for future reference. It also helps when on a shooting location, to note things like where the sunlight comes from at what time and what the sounds are heard around the area. These little details will help you design the script in a more artistic and insightful way.
  
• Interview Research :
  Nine times out of ten, a scriptwriter will be called upon to write a script about something he knows nothing about. Factual knowledge can usually be easily attained from print and field research; however the scriptwriter must also gather  perspective. Not one but many. The best way to gain perspective is to speak to people directly and indirectly connected with the subject. Films are a medium for people, by people and therefore a human perspective is imperative for any film. Interview research, which is basically meeting people and asking them questions, is a must for every film.

The scriptwriter must first decide whom to speak to and what to ask them. Normally, the first person or people to seek out are the experts on the subject at hand. They can provide the scriptwriter with not only knowledge but the benefit of their experience. If there are specific events in the film, then the scriptwriter can speak to people who were involved with the events, directly and indirectly. The selection of people should be varied to get different, even opposing, types of information from each. The questions to ask them should cover a range of ideas and should typically include factual and emotional elements as well as opinions and insights. These conversations should be recorded carefully and relevant points should be kept aside. It always helps to listen to any ideas they may have about how you can ‘treat’ the film conceptually, irrespective of whether you incorporate their opinions into the script or not. Who knows? Somebody may give you a gem of an idea.
• Inner Worlds & Metaphors :
Every scriptwriter has a different personality, a different perspective. Consequently, every scriptwriter has something unique to contribute to a film. This is often one reason why filmmakers come to a specific writer to write their scripts again and again. Imagination is the biggest talent and tool of the scriptwriter. Although not for everybody, a very effective approach at the research stage can be to look within oneself and gather the benefits of past experiences and try and create an emotional stance on the matter at hand. On a spiritual level, meditating upon the inner world within oneself can be a powerful way of harnessing knowledge locked within the sub-conscious mind and perhaps, if one believes so, the power of the collective unconscious or the cosmos.
Metaphors or parallels exist all around us in our lives. Sometimes, we see something that reminds us of something else or inspires us in a particular way. It could be completely unrelated to the object or concept it invokes a memory of, but still portray it in a meaningful way. You could see a highway ridden with rush hour traffic and be reminded of thousands of ants filing in an out of an anthill carrying food. Or the same sight, with horns blaring and drivers swearing, could make you think about the conquest of a robotic age over humaneness. The possibilities and metaphors around us are endless, just waiting to be picked out by an inventive and imaginative writer.

Digging Deep
Every scriptwriter wants to write a brilliant script and it’s a well known fact that some profound investigation needs to be done for this to be accomplished. So what exactly is digging deep and going beyond the facts? What exactly is the scriptwriter looking for and how can it be defined? There are a few ways of looking at these concerns. Suppose a scriptwriter is researching a film on the migratory killer whales or Orcas off the New Zealand coast. Here is an example of the kinds of research material he might look for:

• The ‘Top’ of the issue
  The top of the issue includes the facts; killer whales and their appearance, migratory patterns and when they go, where are they spotted, their behavior, their sounds, activities, intelligence. The scriptwriter could delve into scientific research being done on the whales by interviewing two marine researchers, lets call them Ted and Sue, a couple who live and work on the New Zealand coast. The writer could find out the history of the Orcas and the role that humans played in it. Ted and Sue could even take the scriptwriter on a whale observing expedition, where he would experience the whales first hand and also get an idea of what could be shot for the film.
  
• The ‘Heart’ of the issue
  The scriptwriter could find out more insightful details about the whales as living creatures and fellow mammals. Do they love, do they hate? Why do they beach themselves all together – is it really collective suicide because they mourn their dead like us humans? What kinds of relationships do they have among each other? Yes, a mother whale is attached to her calf, but are the aunts, the uncles? What do they say to each other when they click and whine? Have Ted and Sue ever come into close contact with any whale? Did they feel a connection? How did the whale react to human contact and was it significant in terms of its emotional value? What did the scriptwriter feel when he looked at a whale for the first time and did he get a sense of the ‘spirit’ of the creature?
  
• The ‘Root’ of the issue
  The scriptwriter would find out that the whales have a tragic history because of the excessive whaling that took place in past decades. This tragic and brutal past was because of people, who hunted them almost to extinction. Could their subsequent conservation by people later on be a result of guilt? The scriptwriter could ask what larger role this film could have and the answer might well be to aid in conserving the Orcas for the future by dispelling myths and increasing awareness. This could the message of the film; that everybody needs to get on board to save the killer whale and help them flourish in the oceans.

• The ‘Branches’ of the issue
  The scriptwriter could try and find related issues that would add value to the film. Does the migration of the whales have any effect on the surrounding ecosystems? How about thinking about the spirit of travel or of the ocean itself? Perhaps talk to a person or a group of people who have saved a beached killer whale in the past. Or go in the opposite direction and talk to a person who has killed a killer whale or eaten one. The possibilities of branching out to explore the issue in greater detail are endless. The scriptwriter should then choose which of the details add value to the film.
  
• Finding Challenges
  An issue, when explored in a film, is incomplete when there is nothing introduced that challenges it. The scriptwriter must study the challenges facing the killer whale and their survival as a species. What is being done by people that is hurting their health and causing their numbers to decline, if at all? Are there any challenges put forth by nature that they have to overcome, for instance, like changing temperatures in the waters of the Antarctic? How about large sharks and the threat they pose? Then, the scriptwriter must ask, ‘Is it possible for the killer whales to triumph over these challenges?” and “If they can, then how?” and possibly even, “What can people (i.e. the audience) do to help?”
  Sifting the rice from the chaff: The Post-it Method
  Once you’ve done all there was to do, gathered every bit of relevant information, followed every interesting lead and asked every insightful question, chances are you’ll have more material than you need. At this stage, it’s time to start thinking about which bits of information are going to figure in the film. It’s time to start ruthlessly eliminating material that just doesn’t tell the story. A film lasts for only so long and there are only so many things to be said.
  Organizing research into a comprehensive story basically involves cutting and pasting and seeing which bits of material can follow and ‘flow’ into each other. A good technique is to write down each piece of information in a few words on a post-it or cue card or simply any small piece of paper. For example: one post-it could state “Whales regularly beach themselves in large numbers” and another one could say “Sue looked into the whale’s eyes and cried” etc. Then, stick the post-its in random order on a blank board or wall in columns and rows. After that, the scriptwriter must start a painful process of plucking, discarding and re-sticking until he forms an information chain, which tells the story the writer wants to tell. The only requirement of the story at this stage is that the information must ‘flow’ and all the futile bits of material are discarded. It’s now time to start thinking about writing that script. 
  

SHORT INTRODUCTION TO DOCUMENTARY STYLES

SHORT INTRODUCTION TO DOCUMENTARY STYLES

Over the years, several documentary styles evolved that came and went from fashion. These styles ranged from newsreel to realist to romantic to propaganda and many more. However, three emerged as the most popular and encompassed most of the documentary films made well up to the 1990’s.
Classical Cinema

This is the most structured and traditional form of documentary. It gives great importance to clarity of narrative and images. Characters drive the plots, and continuity editing ensures the seamless progression of events. These kinds of documentaries often made extensive use of didactic narration, as was seen in the most famous documentary in this style, Night Mail by John Grierson, which showed, in dramatised detail, how mail was transported by train overnight. The sequences were tightly controlled and the ‘feel’ was quite formal. The element of ‘realism’ was often interfered with by the filmmaker, who interspersed on-location shots with studio shots and sound dubbing to show real events and make them more ‘filmable’.

Cinéma Vérité / Direct Cinema

This style of documentary originated in the late 1950’s and reached new heights of popularity in the 1960’s. It was, much like the generation that pioneered it, a rebel with a cause. This style was spurred on with the advancement of film technology, including portable cameras with mobile sound. Cinéma Vérité, meaning ‘True Cinema’ in French, aimed for an extreme naturalism, using non-professional actors, non-intrusive filming techniques, a hand-held camera, genuine locations rather than sound stages, and naturalistic sound without post-production or voiceovers. The camera was a ‘fly on the wall’ and took in everything that went on before it. This broke all the rules put into practice by the classical tradition. Direct Cinema and Cinéma Vérité are often used interchangeably, although there are opinions that make distinctions by the degree of camera involvement. The fundamentals of style, however, are very similar between the two. Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include Showman, Salesman, The Children Were Watching, Primary, Behind a Presidential Crisis, and Grey Gardens.

Documentary Drama
This style mixes the techniques of drama and the factual elements of documentary. Real events are acted out by professional actors in controlled settings in an obviously constructed style. This theatrical retelling of facts began in the early days of broadcasting when practical concerns and unwieldy equipment made it difficult to shoot live events. However, it is used even today. Most modern documentaries include some form of event recreation. The popular UK television show, Coronation Street, was originally thought of as a drama documentary.

The docu-drama style has been one of the most controversial ones till date and many have questioned whether it is a documentary style at all. Contention arose because, while documentaries are thought to be "real", docu-dramas were thought to cheat by obviously reconstructing reality. This opinion has been more or less discarded now as most people not only accept the diminishing lines of distinction between different styles of film, but also the overall artificiality of the subsequent editing process for all styles.

These days, with the advent of documentary films into the worldwide commercial film arena as well as their ever-expanding production in most countries of the world, most generic classifications of style have been put to rest. New stylistic elements are experimented with every year and the lines between genres have been crossed so many times that specific categories are impossible to define. Reality TV, for example, has stormed the world of television, taking direct cinema to new levels of voyeurism. Whether they are wobbly, out-of-focus home video diaries or the ‘making-of-a-feature’ promotional films included in DVD packs, they have all served to broaden our definition of the traditional documentary.

So how does all this concern the scriptwriter of a documentary film? This evolution, leading to the overlap of styles and genres, has placed far more overt, interpretive control in the hands of the filmmaker and, consequently, in the hands of the scriptwriter. Before embarking on the writing process, it is important to know the various stylistic options available to you as a scriptwriter. It is also important to recognize the contribution of various traditional styles to modern ones, even if their only use is as a guide to finding a style and ‘voice’ of your own. 

WRITING FOR FILM AND WHY DOCUMENTARIES ARE DIFFERENT

Writing for film, fiction or non-fiction, is quite different from writing for print. There are a few unique features of film that a screenwriter must consider:
Film is visual. The words that a screenwriter writes will never be read by anyone. They will only be seen and heard as images on a screen. The most important skill of a screenwriter is that he must be able to write visually. Theorizing or explaining a concept in a script is pointless; if the audience can’t ‘look’ at the theory, it’s not worth writing. A screenwriter must think, ‘Is what I’m about to write visual in nature? If not, then how can I make it visual?”
Film shows motion. Most of the images you see on screen have action. It’s what separates moving images from photographs. Stories for film must be translated by a screenwriter into active images.
Film reveals what the eye often can’t see. A tiny cell in our bodies, a country we’ve never been to, details that we would normally miss. The screenwriter must bring things to life for the audience who may have never before experienced what they see on screen.
Film transcends time and space. A film doesn’t adhere to our dimensions of time and space. Once made, it continues to exist in a little bubble of its own, transcending the limits of our present lives. A screenwriter must understand that writing for a film means creating a being that should have a life of its own long after the writer has moved on from it.
Film is Subjective. By simply pointing the camera in a specific direction, a subjective choice has been made. The very nature of film, like our eyes, is to focus on what is considered to be the object of interest and eliminate what lies beyond the lens, thereby losing all sense of objectivity.
Film chooses audience. The screenwriter must always keep in mind that each film chooses its own audience depending on how he chooses to tell the story. By varying a script, he may be showing the film to very different people in the end.
Film repeats accurately. Film footage doesn’t discriminate between objects, doesn’t hide, cheat or lie. It consistently reproduces what the camera sees in full detail. It is the filmmaker who must shoot objects in a particular way to include or eliminate details.
Film may have colour and audio elements. It’s not only about moving images. Most films, unless the filmmaker chooses not to use them, have the elements of sound and colour. These elements are always, if present, incorporated into the script.

Film emphasizes and emotionalizes. Films can evoke different kinds of reactions in the audience, from grief to anger. They can make the audience think and send powerful messages across to them.
When it comes to documentaries in particular, there are a few more things to be kept in mind before starting to write a script. Documentary scripts do share many common elements with scripts for fiction films, shorts and features alike. However, they also have their own specific considerations:
Documentary deals with fact, not fiction. Most importantly, documentaries delve into a non-fictional world with real events, real issues, real conflict, real people and real emotions. Everything seen and heard on screen is grounded in accuracy and has no element of fiction.
Documentary is flexible. Unlike fictional films, documentaries have no fixed visual and conceptual guidelines per say. It’s impossible to concretize events or decide one way or the other about how the film will turn out eventually. There are fewer ‘rules’ to be followed, which reflects the fact that there are few rules in the real world as well. This makes it more challenging but infinitely more exciting.
Documentary inspires movement and action. At the very heart of documentary, there is an issue and a message at hand. The passing on of this message to the audience is usually the reason that the film was made in the first place. Documentaries have long been used as an instrument to inspire change in their audience, be it social change or inner change.
Documentary involves less control. Unlike fiction films, documentaries must be shot in the real world and show real events happening. Often, the filmmaker is unable to control the event he is shooting as well as the circumstances surrounding the event. It’s difficult to think about lighting when in the middle of a sniper shootout! There is less control over the subject in documentary; however this unmodified, improvised element is often the very charm of non-fiction films.
Documentary subject is paramount. Documentaries are inherently bound to their subject matter. Since their purpose is so issue-specific and their circumstances are non-fictional, the subject is the most important aspect of documentary films and is given precedence over other aspects, for example: entertainment value. In fact, until recently filmmakers scoffed at the idea of a documentary being entertaining. This attitude has, of course, changed now but subject still remains the dominant element.
Credibility is key in Documentary. The emergence of the documentary as a recognised cinematic genre in the 1920’s inherited the trust of the audience in the veracity of the image as an authentic representation of the real. Today, we are much more skeptical, even with documentaries. Audience trust, once lost is gone forever so a documentary, in this day and age, must always provide credible information and sources to put a suspicious audience at ease.

Form is more important than formula. There are no recipes in documentary films. Every subject and issue is specific and is showcased on film in its own appropriate manner. Form and the layout in which a subject is showcased in a film are important as they add value to the film, but there is no one tried and tested way to do this.
In addition to these conceptual considerations, the screenwriter must ask a number of practical questions as well:

• Why is this film being made?
  
• What does the producer/client/financier want to achieve through the film?
  
• Who is the targeted audience and what should their reaction to the film be?
  
• How much does the audience already know about the subject?
  
• What will be the film’s technical conditions of use (Black & White/Multi-colour?
  Animation? Etc)
  
• What is the budget of the film?
  These factors contribute significantly to the nature of the script for the simple reason that, at the end of the day, film like any other art is a product. Artistry must go hand in hand with practicality, production technicalities and, of course, economics. You may ask yourself, “What difference does a film’s budget make to a script?” The answer is, enormous. It would be easy to write a powerful scene about an ancient battle in a foreign country but the reality of it is that the film crew would have to fly there, hire hundreds of men, use elaborate costumes and props and perhaps even hire trained horses for authenticity. There would even be the additional costs of transport, food etc. This could be an expense the budget does not allow. The scriptwriter will probably have to write a ‘cheaper’ version of the same scene, which might be to shoot abstract visuals of a few men’s feet running, weapons clashing, bloody faces etc and supplement them with the voice of an historian talking about the battle in question and what happened in it. Less elaborate? Certainly. Less powerful? Not necessarily. 
  

HOW TO WRITE A DOCUMENTARY SCRIPT

INTRODUCTION

Gene Fowler once said that writing is easy, just a matter of staring at a blank page until your forehead bleeds. Well, if anything will draw blood from your forehead, it’s writing a brilliant documentary script!
Often in our real lives, ideas and emotions, mind and passion, revolve in different spheres altogether. On film, if we see a dead body, we react immediately with emotion, perhaps even pondering the waste of life and questioning our own existence. However, if we were to see a dead body on a street as we drove by, our immediate reaction may be shock, even revulsion. Emotion may enter the picture long after the experience has ended. In real life, experiences become meaningful with reflection in time. In reel life, they are meaningful the moment they happen. A well-written film script is an instrument through which you can create emotion and epiphany at will. That is one reason why it is possibly the most critical aspect of the filmmaking procedure.
The script is also, often, the most underrated aspect of the documentary process. A school of thought suggests that the documentary-making process should be fluid and organic, whereby the filmmaker experiences the film as he makes it. Many filmmakers write a ‘paper-edit’ after shooting in place of a script. This process has and does work with many types of films. Especially when the filmmaker is recording events beyond his control like political rallies, events, natural disasters, riots and demonstrations etc. However, in most films, the filmmaker will find himself asking the question, “What should I shoot?” Here, it is imperative to start out with a well-written script, whether or not things change during the shooting process. Often preparing a script beforehand can make the difference between a bad film and a good film. Or, at best, a good film and a great film.
There are two stages of documentary scriptwriting:

1. (i)  The Pre-shoot or Shooting Script
   
2. (ii)  The Post-shoot Script
   

A pre-shoot or shooting script is like carrying a map when you set out on a road trip. You may stumble across many unseen barriers or unexpected surprises. You may discover wonderful, uncharted areas off the beaten track. You may decide to go in one direction or the next or perhaps even a third. A map helps you on your way and prevents you from getting lost. A shooting script is a conceptual map for your shooting journey. It consolidates research and outlines the film’s story, providing a visual guideline for the shoot. It uses the same format and elements as a post-shoot script and can be as comprehensive or generic depending on the information available to the scriptwriter at that stage.
A shooting script should not be confused with a shot list. A shot list is a production tool which contains shot numbers, descriptions and transitions along with production details. Even though some director-scriptwriters often combine the shooting script and shot list, the two are separate entities. A shooting script rarely delves into detailed aspects of production unless integral to the story. It is more conceptual in nature; descriptive, but leaving room for interpretation.

The post-shoot script is the final version of the shooting script. This is often a modified or re-written version of the shooting script and is created between the shooting and editing processes of the documentary. The post-shoot script combines conceptual elements along with audiovisual information gathered at the production stage and may also include any new knowledge gathered along the way. It then weaves it all together into a cinematic story, which is used by the filmmaker to edit the documentary. The post- shoot script often includes descriptions of shots and actions and is quite comprehensive.
Again, the post-shoot script should not be confused with a paper-edit, which contains detailed shot and production information. Even though the two are often combined by director-scriptwriters, they are separate entities. The paper-edit is a tool for the editor to cut the footage and includes elements like time-counters, tape numbers, shot in-points and out-points etc. The script is conceptual and descriptive of action but should leave some room for creative interpretation at the editing stage.
Both the pre-shoot and post-shoot scripts are time-specific versions of the same entity. The same elements and technique can be used to create both depending on the amount of information available at that time. 

CAMERA LENSES

A good quality camera lens is essential for capturing sharp, detailed photos. There are dozens available, to suit every subject and budget.

There are many things that determine the quality of your photography, and one of the most important is the lenses you use. A good camera lens will capture sharp photos with plenty of detail and contrast, while a poor one can leave your images looking dull and blurry.

When shopping for lenses, it's important to consider the types of subject you intend to shoot, the likely lighting conditions, and of course your budget. There is no single lens that is perfect for every situation, so you'll need to balance the pros and cons of the various options and pick the best compromise.

This guide will help you make these important decisions so that you can find a camera lens which suits all of your needs, both artistic and practical.

TYPES OF CAMERA LENS

There are dozens of different types of lens available, designed for use in a wide range of circumstances. However, they can largely be grouped as follows:

STANDARD LENSES

A standard lens is one with a mid-range focal length, typically around 50mm. They have an angle of view which is roughly the same as the angle that the human eye can comfortably view, meaning that they produce images which appear "natural" to the viewer.

Standard camera lenses usually have a fixed focal length and wide aperture, giving them excellent performance in low light. They are popular for a wide range of photography subjects, including landscapes, portraits, and candid shots.

MACRO LENSES

A macro lens is one designed especially for close-up photography. They have a different internal construction from normal lenses which gives them very good sharpness and contrast, meaning that they produce some really eye-catching photos.

Macro lenses are useful for photographing any subject at very close range. Typical subjects include insects, animals, and plants, but they are also popular for taking extremely detailed photos of everyday objects.

TELEPHOTO LENSES

A telephoto lens has a long focal length and provides a high level of magnification, allowing you to photograph subjects at a moderate to far distance. They tend to be bigger and heavier than other types of lens, although modern technological advances have made them more compact and easier to handle.

Telephoto lenses are popular for any type of photography where you can't get near to the subject, including wildlife and sports events. They are also commonly used in portrait photography, where a moderate telephoto lens will provide a natural, undistorted perspective.

WIDE ANGLE LENSES

A wide angle lens is one with a short focal length. They provide an angle of view beyond that of a standard lens, allowing them to capture more of the scene in a single shot. Extreme wide angle lenses are known as fisheye lens; these can capture around 180 degrees, making for some intriguing, almost abstract photos.

Wide angle lenses are useful for photographing landscapes, cramped interiors, and other subjects which won't fit into a normal lens's field of view. Fisheye lenses take this even further, and are popular for photographing action sports like skateboarding and surfing, where their inherent distortion gives photos a dynamic feel.

SPECIALIST LENSES

Finally, there are a number of specialist camera lenses which cater for less common photography needs. These include tilt and shift lenses for perspective control, soft-focus lenses for portrait photography, and infrared lenses for capturing light outside the normal spectrum.

A specialist lens is used to produce some sort of special or creative effect, and so they have limited use in general photography. However, they can be very useful if you need to photograph a particular subject in a particular way.

KIT LENSES

Many entry-level SLRs come bundled with one or two lenses, often called "starter" or "kit" lenses. These are good for getting you up and running quickly but they are generally very cheap, slow lenses with poor image quality.

A kit lens is great for getting to grips with your camera and figuring out what focal lengths you like using, but you should consider replacing it when your budget allows.

FOCAL LENGTH

The most important factor in any camera lens is its focal length. This determines which type of lens it is, and what subjects it will be able to photograph. Focal lengths range from just a few millimetres up to over a metre, and can be loosely grouped as follows:

Lens focal lengths, types, and uses

Focal Length	Lens Type	Common Subjects
8mm - 24mm	Ultra wide angle (fisheye)	Wide panoramas and skyscapes, artistic
24mm - 35mm	Wide angle	Interiors, architecture, landscapes
35mm - 85mm (50mm common)	Standard	General purpose
85mm - 135mm	Short telephoto	Portraits, candid
135mm - 300mm	Medium telephoto	Close sports, action
300mm+	Super telephoto	Far sports, wildlife, nature, astronomy

CROP FACTOR

Lens focal lengths are specified for a camera with a "full-frame" 35mm sensor. Most consumer DSLRs and all compacts use a smaller sensor, and this has the effect of cropping off the edges of the photograph, resulting in an image which is more "zoomed in" than it would be on a full-frame sensor.

This cropping makes it seem as though the lens has a longer focal length than it really does. We can calculate a lens's "effective focal length" by multiplying the real focal length by the camera's "crop factor". A typical crop factor is around 1.5x, meaning that a 50mm lens actually has an effective focal length of 75mm when fitted to this camera.

Before buying any lens, you should find out your camera's crop factor and use it to calculate the lens's effective focal length. This will ensure you end up with a lens which gives the desired effect.

PRIME VS ZOOM LENSES

A "prime" lens is one with a fixed focal length, while a "zoom" lens is one that can zoomed in and out to provide a wider range of focal lengths. Each type has its own benefits and drawbacks.

Prime lenses tend to have better optical quality than zooms, and can usually achieve a wider aperture, giving them better low-light performance. Their lack of moving parts also makes them lighter and cheaper. On the other hand, the range of focal lengths offered by a zoom lens can provide more flexibility, making them suitable for a wider range of subjects.

The choice between prime and zoom depends on your level of experience and the subjects you intend to photograph. If you are a beginner, a zoom lens can be a better choice as it will allow you to experiment with a range of focal lengths to find what you like. For more experienced photographers, the improved quality of a prime lens will usually more than make up for the reduced flexibility.

APERTURE

A lens's aperture determines how much light it lets through. More often than not, a wider aperture (lower f-number) is preferable, as it will allow you to take photos indoors and in other situations with little or no natural light.

A wide aperture also allows you to use a faster shutter speed, which is important when photographing fast-moving subjects or when hand-holding the camera.

The down-side of having a wide aperture is the cost - lenses with wider apertures can cost significantly more than a normal lens. This is particularly true of long telephoto lenses, where an extra stop of aperture can easily double the price of the lens.

FOCUSING

Most modern camera lenses have a built-in autofocus mechanism which takes the guesswork out of getting sharp photos. Some specialist lenses may use a manual focusing system, so be sure to check this out before buying.

Some lenses employ more advanced focusing systems to meet particular needs. Silent autofocus is useful for macro and candid photography, where the lens sound can alert the subject and potentially ruin your shot. Internal focusing means that the outside of the lens stays perfectly still, which can be beneficial in macro photography where any movement could scare your subject away.

IMAGE STABILISATION

When photographing at slow shutter speeds, camera movement can cause blurring in your photo. Image stabilisation (IS) is designed to reduce this, making your shots sharper and allowing you to shoot at slower speeds without using a tripod. Optical image stabilisation is considered superior to digital image stabilisation, although it does cost more.

A lens with image stabilisation will typically give you an extra 2 to 4 stops of exposure, allowing for exposures 4 to 16 times longer without a noticeable increase in blurring. This can be very useful when shooting in low light, or when hand-holding a telephoto lens.

LENS FIT

All lenses attach to the camera using some sort of locking lens mount. These come in bayonet, screw-thread, and friction-lock varieties, and they act to attach the lens to the camera body and join any electrical connections.

Each camera manufacturer has its own design, and while they often look very similar, they are not interchangeable. When shopping for a camera lens be sure it has the proper fit so that it will mount on your camera. Most third-party lens manufacturers sell the same lens with different mounts to cater for this.

SIZE AND WEIGHT

You should choose your lenses based on the subjects and situations you intend to photograph rather than the lens's size and weight, but these can be important as a final consideration.

The most important factor is the lens's focal length - longer lenses tend to be bigger and heavier. Aperture also plays a small role in the lens's weight, with a wider aperture requiring a more complex, heavier internal construction. Any extra features such as silent focusing or internal focusing will also generally increase the weight, especially for longer lenses.

If you intend to shoot hand-held, a lighter lens is better as it will be easier to move around and won't ache your arms when used for extended periods. Heavier lenses are sometimes necessary, and you should support them properly using a tripod or monopod. However, be aware that this will reduce your mobility.

The size of a camera lens can be important if you need to carry it in a travel bag or pack it to take on a plane, where space is limited. For these purposes, some manufacturers make lenses which are lighter and more compact than their counterparts, but this will increase the cost.

BUYING A CAMERA LENS

Begin by listing the types of subject you intend to photograph. This may be a single type, such as "portraits", or it may be several, such as "portraits and close sports". Use the table above to select a suitable range of focal lengths to shop for. If your subjects are too far apart (e.g. "interiors and wildlife"), you probably won't find a single lens to cover them all.

Next, consider the likely lighting conditions you will experience. Be sure to consider the worst case scenario so that you can choose a lens that will cover all situations. If you will be using your lens in low light then a wide maximum aperture is essential - you should aim for at least f2.8 for well-lit indoor shots, and at least f1.8 for darker interiors. If you will mostly be using your lens outdoors in daylight then a wide aperture isn't quite so important, but is still preferable.

If there are any special features you require, such as silent autofocus, then list these too. Try not to add these extras just for the sake of it, as they can push the price up quite significantly, and aren't worth it if you won't use them.

Once you have your lens spec mapped out, you can begin looking for specific models. Online stores like Amazon and Adorama are a good place to start, and you can get opinions on particular lenses by visiting review sites and forums.

With some research you should be able to narrow your selection to a handful of suitable products. In general, if you own a Canon or Nikon camera, the best lenses are the ones made by those manufacturers, but there are also some excellent third-party brands such as Tamron, Sigma, and Tokina, which tend to be cheaper.

If you can't find a suitable lens that's within your budget then resist the temptation to buy something cheaper but which doesn't quite do what you want it to do. Camera lenses tend to last for years, so it's usually better to wait and save money until you can afford the one you really want.