Sharing Knowledge: December 2016

Wednesday, December 28, 2016

Radio and television bulletins

Chapter 49: Radio and television bulletins

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All your work as a broadcast journalist leads ultimately to one thing - the time when your listeners hear what you have produced. This can be the news bulletin or a current affairs program. You have to use your on-air time effectively.

Although we will concentrate in this section on producing bulletins for radio, you can use similar techniques for television. The main difference is that television bulletins also include pictures, which have to be coordinated with the script. If you can understand the principles of producing radio bulletins, you can use them for television, adapting them to the style of your particular newsroom.

The principles of bulletin preparation

Radio bulletins are usually made up from three types of material:

written stories in the form of a script;
voice reports from journalists, either recorded or live;
recorded sound called actuality. This is usually the sound of someone speaking, perhaps taken from an interview or a speech. A short segment of actuality is called a grab. Grabs are used in a similar way to quotes in a newspaper story. In some countries, grabs are called cuts or inserts.

Preparing a bulletin should not be difficult if you remember the basic principles of news reporting. Remind yourself of the criteria for what is news: Is it new, unusual, interesting, significant and about people?

Each of these criteria will help you to decide what stories you should include in your bulletin and where you should place them within your five, 10 or 15 minutes. It is usual to give the most important story first and the least important story last. If you are putting together your first bulletin, stick to this technique.

However, once you feel confident that you can put together a simple bulletin, you can start to consider some extra factors which will change it from a list of stories to a proper bulletin.

The two main factors you have to consider are the overall order or balance of the bulletin and the pace of it.

Balance

Try to avoid seeing the bulletin simply as a collection of individual, self-contained stories. If you put a string of economic stories (however important) at the start of the bulletin, you risk losing your listeners' interest.

They expect a balance of items, some heavy and some light, some about major political events and some about ordinary people. Of course, the actual mix of stories, their tone and pace of delivery will depend to a degree on the format of your station; serious national broadcasters tend to use more serious stories, delivered in a more deliberate style whereas youth-oriented music station bulletins might be lighter and brighter with more stories about popular culture.

Whatever your station format, your ranking of stories in order in the bulletin will give your listeners some indication of how important you consider each story. But there is some freedom within bulletins to re-order stories to add variety and balance to the bulletin as a whole.

Pace

You must also get the right pace of stories through your bulletin. By pace we mean the length and tone of a story as it appears to the listeners.

Some stories have a fast pace. The report of a fire, for example, will usually be written in short sentences, using short snappy words to convey simple ideas. It will have a fast pace.

By comparison, a story explaining some involved political controversy may need slightly longer sentences with words expressing more complicated ideas. The story itself may need to be slightly longer. The whole effect is one of a slower pace.

Too many long complicated stories will slow the pace of the whole bulletin and allow the attention of your listeners to wander. Too many short, sharp stories may leave listeners confused, unable to keep up with the pace of changing stories.

Your ideal bulletin will have a steady pace throughout to maintain interest, with variations in pace during certain sections; slower at times to let your listeners catch their breath or faster at other times to pick up their lagging interest.

How do you achieve balance and pace in practice? You should rank your stories in order of importance then look at the order afresh, to see that you have a good balance of items and variations in pace.

You may decide that your most important three stories are all rather serious political stories about taxation, health insurance and an internal party squabble. Ask yourself: "What will my listeners think of three minutes of this at the start of the bulletin?" If you think they will be bored, what about putting the report of a street fight up to the third place in the bulletin, to inject some pace into that section? This may force your party argument story into fourth place, but you will now be giving it new life by changing pace after the street fight story.

Structuring the bulletin

Now you understand the basic principles behind building a news bulletin, you can start thinking about how the stories and components such as headlines and actuality can fit. Bulletins are the broadcasting equivalent of a page on a newspaper, except that in radio and television you are more limited in where you place the different parts because, as we know, news bulletins are linear, therefore all the elements must be placed along the line of time so they are used most effectively.

Starting the bulletin

The start is the most important part of any radio bulletin. It determines whether or not your listeners will stay tuned. Just as the intro is the most important part of a news story, the lead item is the most important one in the bulletin. If your listeners find this boring, they will assume that there is nothing better to come and go out to dig the garden.

If you are faced with a choice between two stories of equal strength for your bulletin lead, choose the story which is more dramatic. If your obvious lead story is rather dull, you should write it in such a way as to add life. Keep the sentences short, the ideas clear and simple. Although you should try to write every story well, you should give special attention to your lead story. This is the one by which listeners will judge the bulletin.

Headlines

Once you have decided on the order of stories, you should write some headlines for the bulletin. It is usual to start a long bulletin by headlining the major stories. This may not be necessary for a short, three-minute bulletin, but for longer bulletins your listeners will want to know what kind of stories they can expect.

Your listeners will use the headlines to judge whether or not the bulletin is worth listening to, so write your headlines to promote the stories in the most powerful way possible.

It is good practice to headline the first two or three most important stories, and also one or two dramatic stories which come later in the bulletin. Many stations also like to headline the final story, on the assumption that, if they make the headline attractive enough, listeners will stay tuned to the entire bulletin until they hear that story.

You should write headlines for dramatic stories in such a way that you hint at the drama without giving away all the details. Remember that if you tell everything in the headlines, listeners have no need to hear the rest of the bulletin.

In English bulletins, headlines do not have to be grammatically complete. They can be more like newspaper headlines, stripped down to the main words. The following are examples of possible headlines:

"More trouble for the Asean alliance."

"Twelve die in a mine blast."

"Why Russia is angry with Israel."

When writing headlines about announcements or humorous stories, it is best to be mysterious, to keep the real information secret until the listeners hear the story itself. Such headlines are sometimes called teasers, because the tease the listeners' interest.

For example, if you have a story about rising petrol prices, you might write the headline "Motorists face another shock at the petrol pumps". Never write the headline "Petrol is to rise by 10 cents a litre" - that gives the whole story away, and your listener can now tune to another station's bulletin or go and dig the garden again.

Closing stories

Sometimes called tail-enders, closing stories are almost as important as lead stories. They are the last stories your listeners will hear and remember from the bulletin. You need to choose them carefully. However, because many listeners do not maintain their attention throughout the whole bulletin, you should not keep your best stories to the end.

Light or funny stories make the best tail-enders. They add relief and a change of pace to heavy bulletins. They should be written in a more informal way than other stories, possibly with a play on words which your listeners will appreciate.

It is usual in English radio bulletins to signal the light tail-ender with the words "And finally...", as in the following example:

And finally, police in Apia are looking for a thief who broke into a house last night ... and left his trousers behind.

Be careful, though. Humorous stories may not be appropriate if the rest of the bulletin is dominated by a major tragedy.

Closing headlines

With longer bulletins, you can use closing headlines to remind your listeners of stories they may (or may not) have heard 10 minutes earlier.

Again they should be the major stories of the bulletin, excluding the tail-ender, which they should have just heard anyway.

Unlike opening headlines, which should attract your listeners to listen to the bulletin, closing headlines are simply there as a service, especially to listeners who may have tuned in late.

Each closing headline should be a summary of the main point of the story, written in one sentence. Any longer and they become a repeat of the story itself. Do not simply repeat the opening headline or intro of each story as a closing headline. This is laziness which does not serve your listeners. Never repeat teasers as closing headlines: give the details.

Closing headlines are usually introduced with a phrase like: "Now to summarise the main stories, ..."

Actuality

Short grabs of actuality are a useful part of news bulletins, for a number of reasons:

They can often tell the story more effectively than a script. If your story is about a violent protest outside an embassy, a 10-second grab of demonstrators chanting and shouting will convey the atmosphere better than any words.

They can add variety to the pace of the bulletin, breaking up a long section of reading by one voice. On the practical side, they allow the newsreader to take a 30 or 40 second rest.

They are often a chance to let people within your community speak on the radio. People like to hear their own voice on radio occasionally, or the voices of people they know.

Using a grab of someone speaking can convince listeners that the person really did say a certain thing. They might not believe your report that the Government is resigning. When they hear the Prime Minister announcing it, they have to believe.

Actuality grabs should be kept short (between 20 and 40 seconds), clear and well-edited. A minute-long grab of a dull voice will slow the pace of your bulletin and may force listeners to switch off.

Grabs must be introduced, stating clearly who will be speaking. You only need to identify a person after paying the actuality (called back-announcing) if the grab is long and the voice is not familiar.

Grabs in languages other than your own should be overdubbed with a translation. This means that you fade down (reduce) the sound of the original speaker until it can only just be heard, then play the voice of the translator over it.

You can occasionally use grabs in languages other than your own without overdubbing, but only if you know that your listeners will be able to understand them. A short grab in simple language may be usable without an overdub, especially when it is used to show the emotion behind a speech, rather than the content.

It is occasionally possible to open the bulletin with dramatic piece of actuality, then explain it with a back-announcement. Such a grab must be dramatic, short and make sense to your listeners. For example, a radio journalist used a 10-second grab of guns firing and people screaming during the assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat, then back-announced: "The guns which destroyed the hopes of peace in the Middle East as President Anwar Sadat of Egypt was assassinated."

Only use such opening grabs on special occasions, otherwise they lose their effect. Also, it is not good to play the grab before the opening theme, as it will confuse your listeners.

Music

Never use music as background to a news bulletin. It is distracting and ruins any variations in pace within the bulletin.

A special theme should be used to announce the bulletin and may occasionally be used within the bulletin, perhaps to separate different segments. We call such short music inserts stabs or stings.

Your opening theme should be short and dramatic. It should either end before the presenter starts reading or should be faded out under their opening words. Many record companies now produce selections of electronic or instrumental themes especially for use as stabs.

Any stabs within the bulletin should echo the opening theme as a link throughout the bulletin. However, too many stabs will annoy the listener and reduce the amount of time available for real news.

It is possible to use a closing theme at the end of the bulletin, although this should be different from the opening theme (you do not want to fool your listeners into thinking that this is the start of the bulletin). The best compromise is to use the opening bars of a theme at the start of the bulletin and use the closing bars at the end.

Timing your bulletin

There is never enough time on radio for all the stories a journalist would like to include, so the timing of your bulletin is very important. By careful timing you will be able to include all your important stories, giving adequate details of each.

The exact time of each item depends upon:

How long the whole bulletin is;
How many items you need to include;
How many grabs of actuality you want to use.

You have to balance these three considerations. If your bulletin is 15 minutes long you can use up to 20 stories, several of them with grabs, and still treat each story properly. If the bulletin is only five minutes, long you might not manage more than seven or eight items and have time for only one or two short pieces of actuality.

Because some important stories can be told briefly and some less important stories need lots of explanation, you cannot set a fixed time for each story. However, if you aim to tell each story in about 30 to 45 seconds, you will be able to cover the news properly and in some detail.

If you have a number of less important stories which you want to mention, run them asbriefs at the end of the bulletin. Briefs are short stories, no longer than one or two sentences each. They are not designed to tell the whole news, simply to let people know that something has happened.

The inclusion of briefs also helps to increase the pace of the bulletin if the rest of the stories are long and heavy.

If you are a newsreader too, you must always read your bulletin through fully before going to air. Use this opportunity to time each item, writing the time in the bottom right-hand corner. Eventually you will be able to look at a piece of copy and estimate within a second how long it will take to read. Initially, timing each item with a watch will help you to develop the skill. Some modern newsroom computer systems can automatically calculate the duration of a story based on the number of words and the newsreader’s reading rate.

Below, in the section Reading rate, we give some practical advice on how to calculate the length of your bulletin and its components.

Always take more copy than you need into the studio, just in case you have misjudged your timing or you have problems with a piece of audio which does not play. The extra copy may be a story which you would not normally consider important enough for the bulletin, but which will provide a useful reserve in emergencies.

Keep glancing at the studio clock as you read the bulletin so that you can make adjustments, adding or taking away stories. And always be ready to use that extra story in an emergency.

In some cases, when your bulletin comes before a current affairs segment, you will not need to run full details of some stories in the news. You can say something like: "We will have full details of this story in our current affairs program after this bulletin."

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Special bulletins

We have been speaking so far mainly about regular news bulletins. There are, however, special bulletins which need considering.

News flashes

A news flash is when the newsreader breaks into a program on-air to read an important, urgent news story, such as a major disaster or the death of a national leader. The news flash should only be used on extremely important stories.

Urgent news which arrives in the studio as the bulletin is going to air should be read at the next most suitable break in the bulletin, although it usually makes sense to use it at the end of the bulletin, just before any closing headlines.

The newsreader should have the story as soon as possible, so that they can decide where in the bulletin to use it. If you intended ending the bulletin with a light story and the flash comes through of a major air crash, you must drop the light story.

It is possible to interrupt a non-news program for a news flash, although you must warn people in the studio that you are coming with the flash. The best method of introducing a flash is for the program presenter to introduce the newsreader with words like: "Now we interrupt the program to cross over to the newsdesk for some urgent news."

The newsreader should then read the story in their usual tone, speaking clearly and repeating details. If you only have one sentence, you can read it twice to get the message across clearly. You should end with words like: "Those are all the details available at the moment. We will give full details in our next bulletin, at six o'clock."

Weekend bulletins

You may need to treat weekend news bulletins in a slightly different way from weekday bulletins, because there are usually fewer stories available.

You will need to re-assess newsworthiness at weekends, perhaps running stories which you would not use at other times. Your listeners will understand this. In fact, they may even welcome a change from a diet of death, disaster and politics.

You may want to make your weekend bulletins shorter and perhaps include a segment on sports news. You may want to save lighter stories during the week to run at the weekend, as long as you still cover the major events as well.

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Practical techniques

There are many practical techniques which will make the job of preparing news bulletins easier and more professional. If you use these techniques, they will help you to overcome many of the problems which inexperienced journalists can encounter.

Ranking stories

One of the major problems in bulletin preparation is ranking the stories in correct order. Just follow some simple steps.

First read through all the stories available. Then go through them again, making three lists (or selecting the stories on to three piles). These categories should be:

Important stories which you must use;
Stories which you can use, but which are not so important;
Stories which you cannot use, for any reason.

First look at the stories in category one. Calculate roughly how much news these will give you (if each story will be approximately 40 seconds long and you have four of them, they will take about 2 minutes 40 seconds to read).

Now choose enough stories from category two to more than fill the remaining time. Together with your essential category one stories, decide the order in which you want to use them, taking into account their importance, length and pace.

You can combine stories on similar topics, either running them as one story or as two stories linked with words such as "Meanwhile" or "Still on the subject of ...". A word of caution. Do not combine too many stories, because they will become a shapeless mass and you will lose the impact of separate intros.

Reading rate

It is very useful to know your reading rate or the reading rate of the newsreader who will read the bulletin. Once you know how long it will take you (or the newsreader) to read one line of type, you can time your bulletin by counting lines, rather than by timing yourself each time you practice.

Reading rates are calculated in words per second (wps) and usually range from 2 wps for slower readers in some languages to 3.5 wps for quite rapid readers in other languages.

Ask a colleague to help you calculate your reading rate. Get them to time 60 seconds while you read a short piece of news script. Mark where you stop after 60 seconds. Add up how many words you read in 60 seconds and write this number down. Repeat this process ten more times with different scripts. To calculate the average number of words you read in 60 seconds, add up all the numbers from the ten scripts and divide the total by ten. Divide this figure by 60 to get your reading rate in words per second.

For example, you might find that over 10 scripts, you read 125, 126, 119, 123, 118, 120, 122, 126, 118 and 117 words in 60 seconds. Add these up; they total 1214 words. Divide this by 10 to get the average number of words per script (121). Now divide this average by 60 to get the number of words per second. The answer is roughly 2 words per second - your average reading rate.

Once you know your average reading rate, you can estimate how long it will take to read each story. Of course, you will not want to count all the words in all your stories; this would take too long. It is better to count just the number of lines.

First, count how many words there are in 50 lines of your standard news scripts, then divide the total by 50. This will give you the average number of words per line. For example, if there are 600 words in 50 lines of script, the average is 12 words per line.

Now you can calculate how long it takes you to read a line of script. For example, if your reading rate is 2 words per second and your script contains an average of 12 words per line, you can read one line in 6 seconds (12 divided by 2). By counting the total number of lines in each story, you can calculate quite accurately how long they will take to read. For example, a story with 8 lines of type will take 48 seconds to read (8 times 6). Mark the time on the bottom right-hand corner of each story.

One final step is to add up the times for all your stories. This will tell you the total time it will take to read them all. When you are adding up total reading time for the bulletin, add an extra two seconds for the pause between each story.

(One tip on counting lines: If the final line in the paragraph ends less than half way across the page, ignore it. Count only those lines which end more than half way across the page. Over a number of paragraphs, this will average out accurately.)

Of course, you may need a calculator to work out all the sums, but it is worth the effort. Once you learn how to calculate the length of your bulletins, you will be able to time them accurately. After many years, you may become so experienced that you can judge the length of a bulletin just by looking at it.

[Back to timing your bulletin]

The script

Most newsrooms today use computers to produce news stories and features which newsreaders can either print out or read directly from a screen in the studio.

If your newsroom uses printed scripts they must be typed neatly, with any last-minute changes clearly crossed out. If you make more than a couple of crossings-out, re-print that script.

Start a new paragraph for each sentence and type double-spaced. Type only one story per sheet, as this will make it easier to find stories if you want to drop or insert them during the bulletin. Use good quality paper which will not rustle as you move it.

Never turn a phrase from one line to the next and certainly never hyphenate words from one line to the next.

Never staple the pages of your bulletin together. You must be able to pull the sheets aside noiselessly as you read them. Stack the stories neatly on one side after you have read them; do not throw them on the floor.

Even if you read “off the screen”, much of the above advice still holds though the challenge now is how to manage the scrolling of the script and the re-arrangement of stories while you read. As mentioned earlier, television newsreaders usually read from an autocue operated by another member of the production staff. Radio newsreaders seldom have such help so have to present their bulletins single-handed.

Whether you work in radio and television, if your news stories and bulletins are well-prepared in an orderly manner, you will make your work easier and serve your audience more effectively.

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TO SUMMARISE:

Let us look back at some simple rules discussed over the past two chapters:

KISS - keep it short and simple
Do not use quotes on radio or in television scripts
Avoid unfamiliar words
Repeat important words
Keep punctuation simple
Simplify numbers
Avoid abbreviations
Show how to pronounce difficult words

When constructing bulletins consider:

balance
pace

Remember radio and television news is presented in a linear way over time.

Consider how you will use different elements and how they go together in sequence.

Time your bulletin precisely but always have extra material in reserve

Television Program Categories

Category 1 News

Newscasts, newsbreaks, and headlines. Programs reporting on local, regional, national, and international events. Such programs may include weather reports, sportscasts, community news, and other related features or segments contained within "News Programs."

Category 2a) Analysis and Interpretation

Programs on various topics that include analysis or discussion, for example, talk or panel shows, consumer affairs or reviews, newsmagazines and documentaries that do not fall under category 2b). This category excludes programs presenting information primarily for entertainment value.

The Commission notes that "Docutainment" programs, gossip or entertainment talk shows fall more appropriately under category 11. Lifestyle magazine shows generally fall under category 5b.

Category 2 b) Long-form documentary

Original works of non-fiction, primarily designed to inform but may also educate and entertain, providing an in-depth critical analysis of a specific subject or point of view over the course of at least 22 minutes. These programs shall not be used as commercial vehicles. Further, programs that fall under the category 11(b) Reality television do not qualify as 2(b) programming.

Category 3 Reporting & Actualities

Programs focusing on the coverage of conferences, political conventions, opening/closing of events (including awards dinners) and political debates, as well as programs of a non-entertainment nature intended to raise funds.

Category 4 Religion

Programs dealing primarily with (i.e. more that 50%) religion and religious teachings, as well as discussions of the human spiritual condition.

Category 5a) Formal Education & Pre-school

Programs presenting detailed information related to a wide variety of topics and used by the viewer primarily to acquire knowledge. The programs can be related to established curricula. All programs targeted at pre-schoolers (ages 2-5) except those that are primarily comprised of drama.

Category 5b) Informal Education/Recreation & Leisure

Programs presenting information on recreation, hobby and skill development, recreational sports and outdoor activities, travel and leisure, employment opportunities, and talk shows of an informative ("how-to") nature.

Category 6 Sports

Programs of live or live-to-tape sports events and competitions including coverage of professional and amateur tournaments. The category also includes programs reviewing and analysing professional or amateur competitive sports events/teams (i.e. pre- and post-game shows, magazine shows, scripted sports, call-in and talk shows, etc.). This category includes the following sub-categories:

Category 6(a) Professional sports
Category 6(b) Amateur sports

Documentaries on sports-related topics fall under category 2. Programs on leisure and recreational sports fall under category 5b).

Music and Entertainment

Category 7 Drama and Comedy

Entertainment productions of a fictional nature, including dramatisations of real events. They must be comprised primarily of (i.e. more than 50%) dramatic performances. Category 7 includes the following subcategories:

a) On-going dramatic series

b) On-going comedy series (sitcoms);

c) Specials, mini-series, and made-for-TV feature films;

d) Theatrical feature films aired on television;

e) Animated television programs and films (excludes computer graphic productions without story lines);

f) Programs of comedy sketches, improvisations, unscripted works, stand-up comedy; and

g) Other drama, including, but not limited to, readings, narratives, improvisations, tapes/films of live theatre not developed specifically for television, experimental shorts, video clips, continuous action animation (e.g. puppet shows).

Category 8a) Music and dance

Programs comprised primarily (i.e. more than 50%) of live or pre-recorded performances of music and/or dance, including opera, operetta, ballet, and musicals. The performance portion excludes videoclips, voice-overs or musical performances used as background.

Category 8b) Music video clips

Short film or videotape productions or concert excerpts (clips) not produced primarily for the particular program in which they are presented, which normally contain one musical selection with visual material.

Category 8c) Music video programs

Programs consisting primarily (i.e. more than 50%) of music videos and in some cases including a host and other programming elements.

Category 9 Variety

Programs containing primarily (i.e. more than 50%) performances of mixed character (e.g. not exclusively music or comedy performances) consisting of a number of individual acts such as singing, dancing, acrobatic exhibitions, comedy sketches, monologues, magic, etc.

Category 10 Game shows

Programs featuring games of skill and chance as well as quizzes.

Category 11(a) General entertainment and human interest

Programs primarily about the world of entertainment and its people. These programs include celebrity profiles that may use promotional footage, talk or interview shows, award shows, galas and tributes. They also include entertainment-oriented magazine shows; fund-raising shows which include entertainers (i.e. telethons); human interest programs consisting of live or live-to-tape footage without significant portions devoted to in-depth analysis or interpretation; and coverage of community events such as carnivals, festivals, parades and fashion shows.
Programs consisting primarily (i.e. more than 50%) of performances fall under categories 7, 8 or 9.

Category 11(b) Reality television

Programs that present unscripted dramatic or humorous situations, document actual events and typically feature ordinary people instead of professional actors. This type of programming involves passively following individuals as they go about their daily personal and professional activities.
Though unscripted, this programming may be directed and may resemble a soap opera – hence the popular references to “docusoaps” and “docudramas.”
Though this type of programming may be factual, it lacks or has very minimal amounts of in-depth critical analysis of a specific subject or point of view that is the key defining element of category 2(b) Long-form documentary programming.

Other

Category 12 Interstitials

Programs with a running time of less than 5 minutes, exclusive of advertising and other interstitial material, consisting of material that can be described under categories 2 to 11.

Category 13 Public service announcements

Messages of less than 5 minutes duration intended to educate the audience about issues of public concern, encourage public support and awareness of a worthy cause, or promote the work of a non-profit group or organization dedicated to enhancing the quality of life in local communities or in society or the world at large. These include community billboards. These messages are not intended to sell or promote goods or commercial services. No payment is exchanged between broadcasters and producers for the broadcast of these messages.

When public service announcements are logged, the start and end times must be entered, the program class must be "PSA" and two components of the key figure must be recorded: "Origin" and "Category" (130). No other components should be entered.

Category 14 Infomercials, promotional and corporate videos

Programming exceeding 12 minutes in length that combines information and/or entertainment with the sale or promotion of goods or services into a virtually indistinguishable whole. This category includes videos and films of any length produced by individuals, groups and businesses for public relations, recruitment, etc.

When this material is logged, the start and end times must be entered, the program class must be "PGI", and the category 140. No other components of the key figure should be entered.

Category 15 Filler programming

Programming, in no case longer than 30 minutes in duration, the purpose of which is to fill in the time between the presentation of the major programs broadcast by the licensed pay services and those specialty services authorized to distribute filler programming, and includes material that promotes the programs or services provided by the licensee.

Piece-to-Camera: Some Techniques, Some Tips

Piece-to-Camera: Some Techniques, Some Tips
Piece-to-Camera (PTC)- Some Tech- Tips
Piece-to-Camera, as popularly known as PTC, has not only become a popular means of involving the reporter directly with the story, but also become an effective tool in the art of television story-telling, observes Mr. Nilambar Rath
-Think in advance about ‘the need’ (why and where), ‘the production formats’, ‘the location’ and ‘the background’ etc. -Focus on the content (subject) and take care (and control) of communication, voice modulation, body language, dressing sense (you can plan right dressing matching the occasion, if required), time duration, deadline etc. Types of PTC: ‘Opener’, ‘Bridge’ and ‘End’ PTC and their need. Framing: Left, Right and Centre framing. Presentation aspects: Dressing sense, body language, eye contact, simple and direct communicative langauge, ‘not presenting’ but ‘directly talking to the viewers’, style, mood, pitch and modulation matching the storyline/content etc. Walking PTC, PTC is sitting position, narrative PTC, cord-less audio equipment gives more freedom to production and presentation style etc. Try to be a part of the subject (mix with the crowd, sit with the people, be a part of the activity to add live to your content and look). Purpose of the PTC:
 Establishing the team in the action front.
 Direct communication with the viewers.
 Not just to show the face of the reporter or establish him on the location but to tell or show something extra, something important or interesting.
 An extra feature in the line of the presentation and style of the story. (It’s Television.)
 An essential part of the story.
© www.medialearning.in | Piece-to-Camera: Some Techniques, Some Tips
 Adding new information/angle/perspective to the story.
 Taking the story forward.
 An effective way to explain complicated issues or unknown concepts/facts in an easy or simple manner.
 ’Show-and-Explain’ PTCs are not meant for every story, every day. Used them judiciously. They can help viewers make sense of difficult subjects.
 Live PTC brings advantage to the producer to take fresh inputs/updates and interact directly with the reporter on location. It’s the most convincing/genuine/credible way of presenting news (in Television).
SOME TIPS:
 Before you shoot any PTC have the complete idea on the story/subject/issue, especially on the angle or aspect you want to focus upon (right at that moment). Once you have the structure, it will be easier for you to concentrate on the delivery. You don’t need a complete script but a ‘mental outline’.
 Good PTCs need close collaboration between the reporter and the cameraperson. Brief the cameraperson on the content and the production requirement before rolling the camera.
 Focus on the background and the frame, as they are the integral parts of your PTC-content. Guide the cameraperson, where required.
 Follow the Production command, if you have got a field producer. The producer is the ‘final say’.
 And, follow the simple communication theory- i.e. ‘keep it simple and short’ (‘KISS’).
Ask yourself before going for a PTC:
 Why do I want to have a PTC in this story?
 What information would I convey in the PTC?
 Do I have something special to show or demonstrate in this PTC and I can not really communicate without the same?
 Where (location) and when (time) should I do this PTC?
 How will the PTC fit in the finished story?
(Contributed by: Mr. Nilambar Rath. www.nilambarrath.com)

FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF A TV SET UP

There are many different staffing arrangements in Television stations. Some big city stations employ 300-400 people and may be divided into dozens different departments. Small town stations may have

20-30 employees and only a few departments. Normally General Manager is the head of a television station, the person ultimately responsible for all station activities. The Sales department is responsible for selling time to local and national advertisers, scheduling advertisements, sending bills to customers. Maintaining all the equipment is the responsibility of Engineering Department.

The Production Department puts together locally produced programming. At many stations the programming function is also handled by the production department. Those involved in programming decide what programmes should be telecast and at what time they should be presented.

The News Department includes the news director, anchorpersons, reporters and writers responsible for the station's newscast. The Administrative Department supports the General Manager in running the

station. At the network level, the divisions are somewhat more complicated.

Although the major networks differ in their setups, all seem to have departments that perform the following functions:-

·Sales: handles sales of network commercials and works with advertising agencies.

·Entertainment: works with the producers to develop new programs for the networks.

·Owned and operated stations: administers those station owned by the networks.

·Affiliated Relations: A very important job in the new century, it supervises all contracts with stations affiliated with the network and generally tries to keep the affiliates happy.

·News: responsible for all network news and public affairs programmes.

·Sports: responsible for all sports programming.

·Standards: checks all network programmes to make sure they do not violate the law or the networks own guidelines for appropriate content.

·Operations: handles the technical aspects of actually sending programmes to affiliates.

Infrastructure or organizational set up and Working of a TV channel

For a television organization to manage the affairs there is a Board of Management or Board of Governors or Board of Directors. The Chief Executive or Chairman or Managing Director approved by

the Board, is the Administrative and Executive Head of the Corporation.

Human Resources or Administration & Personnel Department

This department is responsible for formulation and implementation of administrative policies. Admin & Personnel Department consists of two sections "Administration section" and "Personnel Section". The

over all head is Director whereas at centers Executive Administration & Personnel Manager heads it.

Programmes Department

Programmes Department is responsible for making programmes like dramas, music, infotainment and religious programmes and miscellaneous programmes. The Director Programmes heads this Department

whereas Executive Programmes Manager is the person in charge.

News Department

This department is responsible for news gathering, production and Telecast through news bulletins. This department is headed by Director News and Senior News Editor is the in charge.

Current Affairs Department

Current Affairs related programmes are a regular feature of transmission of a news channel. A Director Current Affairs heads it and at small stations Head of Current Affairs is team leader. This department is

responsible for making current affairs programmes and bulk of programming at a channel is contributed by it.

Sports Department

Sports Department is to provide sports entertainment to viewers and is headed by Director Sports and there are Sports Producers at different centers as well. Apart from occasional International / National

sports coverage TV channels also televise live national and international sports around the world.

International Relations Department

The major responsibility of this Department is to promote friendly relations with international TV Networks/Organizations to enhance knowledge in the field of electronic media. It also participates in the

International Television Festivals/Competitions held in different countries by sending best programmes.

Engineering Department

The Engineering Department takes care of the day to day operations and maintenance of a TV network and Rebroadcast Stations, new projects, Planning & Procurement, as well as research and Development

activities. At national level Director Engineering is the while at centers Executive Engineering Manager may be the in charge.

Training Courses

Such courses impart professional training in various disciplines of television broadcast technology. It may be headed by a full time Director, and is assisted by a team of television professionals who are

members of the academic faculty.

Marketing

The Marketing Department of TV network is responsible for marketing the programmes and the commercial time on its screen. It is the major source of any TV network earnings. It is headed by

Director Marketing at large stations and by General Managers at the small stations. Advertisers can book commercial spots in the commercial breaks provided between programmes and can also sponsor

programmes shown on a TV network.

Information Technology

The Information Technology Department is responsible to deal the IT up-gradation and solutions to bring improvement on screen and ensure non-stop programming. It is headed by Controller at large

stations and IT in charges small stations.

Finance Department

Finance Department is headed by Director Finance large stations and by Executive Manager Finance at small stations. It has to record all business transactions according to the prevailing tax laws and

accounting principles.

Programmes Department

This Department deals with the production of programmes.

Camera Department

This is a sub department of programmes production Department. It is headed by chief cameraman & is supported by cameramen, light men, still photographer.

Design Department

This department is responsible for set designing and erection of sets in the studios and outdoors of various a TV network programmes. It is headed by the Design Manager and consists of designers &

other support staff and studio hands.

Make-up

This is a sub section of programmes department & deals with the make-over & get ups of the talents according to nature of the programme.

Presentation Section

This section comes under programmes department & handles the Scheduling & broadcast of programmes/ advertisements.

TV INDUSTRY PERSONNEL

TV INDUSTRY PERSONNEL
by Dr. George Vinovich
ABOVE-THE-LINE vs BELOW-THE-LINE
TV production personnel are usually categorized as either above-the-line or below-the-line. Creative personnel such as
producers, writers, directors, and actors are classified as above-the-line, while technical personnel such as camera,
audio, TD, VTR, grip, and gaffer are classified as below-the-line. Although it may appear as if this is a delineation between
“creative” and “technical” jobs, it is actually done merely for accounting purposes on a TV show’s budget. Below-theline
personnel are usually paid a fixed salary or set wage based on their union’s contract, while above-the-line personnel
usually work on negotiable salaries that are much higher than their union’s minimum wage. Just about any camera
operator or audio technician is going to cost about the same rate, whereas the salary for a particular actor or director can vary
significantly depending on the salary a particular actor or director can command.
As such, a TV production’s below-the-line costs can be figured out fairly easily based on the mere number of technical
personnel needed for the production, where as the same show’s above-the-line costs can vary astronomically depending
on the particular individual actors, directors, and writers hired for the program. Marlon Brando would command a much
higher salary to star in a program than Henry Winkler. Judith Krantz would command a much higher salary to write a TV
mini-series than the writers on MeIrose Place. Likewise, Steven Spielberg would command a much higher salary to direct
than the guy who directed the “Maxercise Creme” commercial.
ABOVE-THE-LINE PERSONNEL
1. Executive Producer - the owner of the TV program and as such, the ultimate authority for the project. Sometimes
the executive producer is merely the money or the “bank” behind the project and has very little creative input or
interest in the project. The main interest is managerial concern for a financially profitable project. Executive
producers usually hire a team of qualified producers, directors, and writers to take care of the creative aspects of
the TV program. If you were having a house built for you, you would be considered the executive producer
since you would have the ultimate authority over whom you hire as your architect, general contractor, and
subcontractors, and you are also responsible for paying all of the wages for the workers as well as all the bills for
all of the materials to build the house. Executive producers do not belong to any unions or professional guilds
because they are management. (Try to name the executive producers of some of your favorite TV shows).
2. Producer (PGA) - hired by the executive producer to be in charge of the creative quality of the TV show. The
producer is similar in nature to the architect who designs your house, but who does none of the actual work of
building the house. The producer will hire a director to serve as the general contractor to be in charge of the
daily responsibilities on the set, but the director normally must answer to the producer in regard to overall
quality and progress of a particular episode of the TV series. Producers are hired because they know the best
directors, writers, music directors, and art directors to hire for a project, and they also know how to coordinate
and “work with” these creative artists for optimum results. In the end it is the producer who is responsible for the
overall quality of the finished product, and it is the producer who must answer to the executive producer.
3. Associate/Assistant Producer (AP) - assists the producer in any manner needed. Some producers have a lot of
responsibility in coordinating the creative aspects of the show, while other AP’s are merely glorified
secretaries that assist in coordinating schedules, telephones, and contracts in non-creative, clerical roles. Since
this is usually a non-union job, an AP can make as little as minimum wage for working a 60-hour week, or, if the
individual is well-liked and valued by the producer, command a very handsome salary. Friends and relatives of
the producer who start out as AP’s usually get good salaries, while unknowns usually get paid peanuts until they
can prove their value on the job to the producer.
4. Director (DGA) - is hired by the producer or executive producer to be in charge of coordinating the daily
responsibilities on the set for the shooting of the actual program episode. The director’s role is similar in nature
to the general contractor who is in charge of directing at the construction site the masons, carpenters,
plumbers, and electricians who will actually build your house. Although in movie or film production the
director is primarily responsible for coaching or “getting the performance out of the actors”, in television the
director is more concerned with “calling the shots” in the control room during production, rather than actually
working with the actors. In other words, a movie director typically sits in the canvass chair on the set
directing the actors and action through a megaphone, while a TV director sits in the control room away from
the set and calls for the TD (Technical Director) to take various camera shots through a PL (Private Line)
headset to electronically edit the show in real time. In film style production, the director just has one camera
shot at a time to worry about, while in TV production, the director has at least four cameras shooting at
once during a typical sit-com, newscast, or talk show. In sports broadcasts, however, a director may have as
many as 12 cameras from which to select or up to 25 cameras during an event such as the Super Bowl.
5. Lighting Director (IBEW) - primarily responsible lighting the set on TV show. Unlike a director of
photography or cinematographer in film who is intimately involved in camera placement, framing, depth of
field, camera movement, and lighting of each shot, the TV lighting director is concerned mainly with lighting a
particular set that is used repeatedly on a show, or lighting the set for a particular production number or
musical act on a show. TV lighting directors work predominately in a studio and rarely work outdoors on
location.
6. Art Director (SMPTAD-IATSE) - primarily responsible for the “look” of show which is the result of the set
design, props, costuming, and make-up. Most art directors specialize in certain types of shows such as sitcoms,
soap operas, game shows, talk shows, or newscasts. Although an art director will hire other specialists
(or subcontractors) to handle each aspect of costuming, make-up, set dressing, set construction, and special
effects, the art director is responsible for delivering the overall “look” of the show desired by the
producers.
7. Casting Director (CSA) - primarily responsible for finding the right actor for the part. Instead of having the
director and producers sit through long hours of “cattle calls”, producers hire casting directors for their
expertise in presenting an appropriate selection of qualified actors who would be good for various parts in a
series or particular episode. Casting directors usually know better than directors and producers which actors
are qualified for certain parts, what the individual actor’s range is, and which actors are available to play
certain parts. By limiting the producers’ choices to a pre-screened “A List” of talent, the production saves
much time and money in auditioning actors, and usually ends up with much better actors for the parts in the
show.
8. Actors (SAG) (AFTRA) - are referred to in the industry as “talent” and are primarily responsible
or supplying the dialogue and visual action in front of the camera for the film. In fact, any one whose voice or
body appears on camera is considered “talent” whether he or she has any or not. Actors traditionally take
their orders from the director (except for some actors who are big enough in the business to tell the
director what to do). TV actors are provided their dialogue from the script and are coached in their
delivery by the director. Most actors belong to both SAG and AFTRA so that they may work in front of
both television cameras and film cameras. An actor must belong to the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) in order
to work on TV shows shot on film such as Melrose Place, Seinfeld and Star Voyager. Conversely, an actor must
belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) in order to work on shows that
are shot on video tape such as Roseanne, Married: With Children, Home Improvement, and General Hospital
9. Writer (WGA) - primarily responsible for writing the script or teleplay which contains the show’s dialogue or
spoken lines. Various episodes of a TV series are usually written by different writers. This includes the plot
(story) and dialogue for the episode. Although unknowns can sell story ideas to the show, the final script and
final script and writing credit is almost always given to the staff writers on the show.
10. Music Director (ASCAP) - is primarily responsible for composing and/or arranging a TV show’s music. Although
the show’s theme song is usually written by another composer, a show’s music director is primarily responsible for
composing and arranging the show’s music scores and bumpers. On a talk show such as Letterman or Leno. the
music director is responsible for selecting, arranging, and conducting the musical accompaniment for the show.
11. Production Assistant (PA) - assists just about anyone during a production. Again, a PA can serve a very
important role in some productions, or merely perform menial tasks such as running errands, photocopying
scripts, or making deliveries all over town. Depending on the production and the particular producer for whom
the PA works, the job is sometimes an above-the-line position with a good salary. This, of course, is in
situations in which the PA performs vital and highly-valued a particular producer. In most situations, however,
PA’s work 60-80 hours a week for a very low salary, and to add insult to injury, they are usually on-call 24
hours a day and have to use their own vehicles to perform the errands and deliveries for the production. A male
PA is sometimes called a “gofer” (go for this; go for that), --while a female PA is called a “honeydo” (honey, do
this; honey, do that). Although PA’s are almost at the bottom of the production crew hierarchy (just a notch
above a “runner”), they often climb the ladder over the years to become associate producers and producers. As
such, there is a wise saying in the industry that most actors, writers, directors, and production crew heed, and
that is, “Be nice to the PA” because the little PA serving you coffee right now could be the producer you are
working for ten years from now.
BELOW-THE-LINE PERSONNEL
1. Assistant Director (AD) (DGA) - assists the director in the control room by readying camera shots, timing scripts,
and coordinating cues, or on the set by coordinating the extras in the scene. Becoming an AD is not a stepping stone
to becoming a director. AD’s are specifically trained to work with extras and not actors. Several AD’s usually
assist a director on TV shows that are shot on location.
2. Technical Director (TD) (NABET) (IA) - executes the director’s commands by selecting and mixing various cameras
and video sources on the switcher (SEG) to go out over-the-air or to the master video tape recorder (VTR). The TD
performs the fades, dissolves, cuts, keys, and electronic special effects such as wipes, chroma keys, and DVE
that are used to electronically edit and combine the various video sources for a show.
3. Camera Operator (NABET) (IA) - primarily responsible for framing the shot, focusing the shot, zooming in or out,
and performing any camera moves on-the-air such as pan, tilt, dolly, truck, arc, pedestal, or tongue. Camera operators
usually have their particular shots written on the script for scripted shows such as sit-coms, soaps, and newscasts;
or they have an assigned area or type of shot for unscripted programs such as talk shows and sports broadcasts.
4. Audio Technician (NABET) (IA) - primarily responsible for miking, mixing, and sweetening the audio for a program.
Unlike movies, most TV shows use the “live” audio recorded on the set. As such, miking is very important for the
overall quality of a show. On talk shows, the guests usually have wireless lapel mikes clipped to their shirts,
while the host of the show uses a wireless hand-held mike to speak and gather responses from the studio
audience. Singers typically use hand-held mikes, sportscasters use headset mikes, and newscasters use lapel
mikes. In soap operas and sit-coms, the two boom mike operators on the set must get the best possible
microphone placement for optimum sound pick-up without showing up in the shot or casting a shadow in the
shot. Mixing refers to the balance between the dialogue and the music score in a drama, or the balance between
the sportscaster’s voice and the crowd noise during a baseball game. On talk shows such as Ricki Lake, the audio
tech may have to balance 10-12 separate microphone feeds from screaming guests in relation to the host’s
microphone. In audio sweetening, the audio tech adds pre-recorded laugh tracks and applause tracks to the
soundtrack of a sit-com to make the show funnier and more exciting. Even though most of these shows are shot
before a live studio audience, all of the laughter and applause you hear in the program when it is aired on TV
come not from the live performance, but from prerecorded tracks orchestrated with a mixture of various carts in
the sweetening process.
5. Character Generator (CG) (NABET) (IA) - primarily responsible for operating the CG or Chyron which produces
the electronic titles and graphics used in a show such as the roll credits at the end of a show, the key cards to
identify people on a talk show, the score and statistics keyed over the picture during a sportscast, and the
graphics used in newscasts.
6. Video Editor (NABET) (IA) - is primarily responsible for electronically editing on video tape program segments, news
stories, promos, and movie teasers and separators for block conforming. On-line editors perform the technical
operations of assembling a program according to the creative decisions of the directors, producers, or their
assistants. Off-line editors are sometimes hired by the producers to make more of the creative decisions in
regard to the artistic aspects of editing a program. As such, off-line editors make many of the creative decisions
for the Edit Decision List (EDL) that the on-line editor will follow to technically assemble the actual master
tape for the program.
7. Video Engineer (NABET) (IBEW) - primarily responsible for maintenance and repair of all equipment used in
production, master control operations, and transmission via satellite, microwave, and over-the-air broadcast. Of
all TV personnel, video engineers are in the highest demand. They are paid quite well and can always get a job.
This job, however, requires extensive training in electronics which is not covered in most TV degree programs in
college.
8. Floor Manager/Stage Director (DGA) - primarily responsible for coordinating the action on the set or stage by
relaying the director’s commands to the crew and talent via hand signals. Since the TV director is usually in a
control room separated from the actors and crew on the set, the floor manager coordinates the work on stage by
relaying the director’s commands to the people on the set. Although the director can speak to the Floor
Manager via the PL line headset feed during a taping, the Floor Manager must communicate to the stage
personnel via hand signals since his or her voice would pick up on the live microphones during the taping.
9. Grip (Stage Hand) (IA) - primarily responsible for moving and erecting scenery, flats and props on the set. Since
union regulations are very strict in regard to these matters, only grips are allowed to touch these particular items.
If anyone else handles or moves these items on the set, a union grievance or possible walkout could occur. As
such, if a polite cameraman helps a grip move a heavy prop, it could cause big problems for both of them as well
as the production.
10. Gaffer (Electrician) (IBEW) - primarily responsible for handling lighting instruments, dimmers, cables, generators,
and other electrical equipment. Just as a gaffer is not allowed to touch scenery or props, a grip is not allowed to
touch any lighting equipment.
11. Unit Manager (IA) - is primarily responsible for coordinating the logistical aspects for support services of the
production such as transportation, food, lodging, location clearances, union contracts, etc. A unit manager or
production manager is very similar in nature to a “travel agent” for the production. Although it is not one of
the “glamour” positions in the industry, it is still a very important function for the success of the production.
Good unit managers are usually in high demand and the pay is quite lucrative.
12. Runner - primarily responsible for running errands and making tape and script deliveries. The lowest job in the TV
industry hierarchy, being a runner is usually one’s first job in television. Runners are non union and are usually
paid little more than minimum wage. Job qualifications include: 1) speak English; 2) have a valid driver’s
license; 3) have a car in running condition; and 4) be able to work long hours for little pay with only the hope
of someday being promoted to a PA position.

Broadcast programming

Broadcast programming is the practice of organizing and or ordering of broadcast media programs (Internet, television, radio, etc. ) in a daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly or season-long schedule.

Modern broadcasters use broadcast automation to regularly change the scheduling of their programs to build an audience for a new show, retain that audience, or compete with other broadcasters' programs. In the United Kingdom, this is known as TV listings.

Television scheduling strategies are employed to give programs the best possible chance of attracting and retaining an audience. They are used to deliver programs to audiences when they are most likely to want to watch them and deliver audiences to advertisers in the composition that makes their advertising most likely to be effective.Digitally based broadcast programming mechanisms are known as electronic program guides (EPG).

At a micro level, scheduling is the minute planning of the transmission; what to broadcast and when, ensuring an adequate or maximum utilization of airtime.

Television program

A television program (British English: programme) is a segment of content intended for broadcast on over-the-air, cable television, orInternet television, other than a commercial, trailer, or any other segment of content not serving as attraction for viewership. It may be a single production, or more commonly, a series of related productions (also called a television series or a television show).

A limited number of episodes of a television show may be called a miniseries or a serial or limited series. Series without a fixed length are usually divided into seasons (U.S.) or series (UK), yearly or semiannual sets of new episodes. While there is no defined length, U.S. industry practice has traditionally favored longer television seasons than those of other countries.

A one-time broadcast may be called a "special", or particularly in the UK a "special episode". A television film ("made-for-TV movie" or "television movie") is a film that is initially broadcast on television rather than released in theaters or direct-to-video.

A program can be either recorded, as on video tape, other various electronic media forms, played with an on-demand player or viewed onlive television.

Formats[edit]

Television programs may be fictional (as in comedies and dramas), or non-fictional (as in documentary, news, and reality television). It may be topical (as in the case of a localnewscast and some made-for-television movies), or historical (as in the case of many documentaries and fictional series). They could be primarily instructional or educational, or entertaining as is the case in situation comedy and game shows.[citation needed]

A drama program usually features a set of actors playing characters in a historical or contemporary setting. The program follows their lives and adventures. Except for soap opera-type serials, many shows especially before the 1980s, remained static without story arcs, and the main characters and premise changed little. If some change happened to the characters' lives during the episode, it was usually undone by the end. (Because of this, the episodes could be broadcast in any order.) Since the 1980s, there are many series that feature progressive change to the plot, the characters, or both. For instance, Hill Street Blues and St. Elsewhere were two of the first American prime time drama television series to have this kind of dramatic structure, while the later series, Babylon 5, is an extreme example of such production that had a predetermined story running over its intended five-season run.[1]

In 2012, it was reported that television was growing into a larger component of major media companies' revenues than film.[2] Some also noted the increase in quality of some television programs. In 2012, Academy-Award winning film director Steven Soderbergh, commenting on ambiguity and complexity of character and narrative, stated: "I think those qualities are now being seen on television and that people who want to see stories that have those kinds of qualities are watching television."

Genres

Scripted entertainment

Animated

Award shows (partially scripted)

Drama, which includes:

Action-adventure or Thriller

Science-fiction, fantasy, horror, supernatural drama